DISCUSSION REPLY Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

DISCUSSION REPLY - Essay Example Supporters of the Replacement Model do not believe that interbreeding was common or likely and would not be relevant on an evolutionary level (Clarke, 1-2). There is no perfect theory. The only disagreement that I have with this theory is that it so staunchly argues that interbreeding is not a factor in the origins of modern humans and their populating of the planet. I think that may be a bit short sited. This would be entirely believable if the distinction between the African stock was vastly superior to the products of evolution that has occurred in Europe and Asia. However, if there were enough similarities and interaction it seems inevitable that inbreeding would most certainly occur. This favors the Partial Replacement Theory (Clarke 2-3). However, either perspective is stronger than the idea that all human developed only in Africa and is solely the result of mass migration. Most people have been taught that Neanderthals were the quintessential â€Å"cave-man.† Slow moving, slower thinking, and died off due to an inability to adapt, allowing Homo sapiens to become the ultimate dominant species of Hominid. However, modern researchers are changing that perspective and putting the myth to rest that Neanderthals were slow-witted and little or no real interaction with the African Modern humans migrating into Europe and Asia. Recently remains were discovered that confirm that inbreeding between did occur between Homo sapiens and Neanderthal. This lends credence to the theory that Partial Replacement took place. Neanderthal is presently being found in the modern populations of human beings throughout Asia and Europe at a ratio of %1to %4 presences of Neanderthal ancestry (Viegas 1). The skeletal remains found date back 30,000 to 40,000 years ago; they belong to an individual who shows cranial signs of inherited traits of their mixed heritage. For example, the lower jaw is neither jutting as in

U.S. Social Identity Group and Business paper and presentation Essay

U.S. Social Identity Group and Business paper and presentation - Essay Example For them, stereotypes have been part of their culture since prehistoric days in which slavery was the norm. This paper explores some stereotypes held against Africa Americans and the effect they present on organizational behavior and productivity. Both Americans and other cultural subgroups in United States geographical areas hold stereotypes against African Americans. Largely, since White people were slave owners before the abolishment of slavery, they are the main culprits of such stereotypes. For instance, slaves were perceptibly happy and ignorant people who were ready to serve their masters. According to their White masters, they were lazy people who needed supervision from their masters in order to work productively. Of all minority groups in America, African Americans endure the worst forms of prejudice (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2010). They may fail to enjoy economic and social advantages such as lower employment rates and lower remuneration. Stereotypes affect organizational behavior and productivity in negative ways. The stereotype that African Americans require supervision to show efficiency in the workplace is misguided. It affects organizational behavior because some employees may endure victimization owing to generalization. The probable psychological effects of stereotypes on African Americans may reduce their ambition and honesty to feedback. Eventually, they may fail to demonstrate productivity because of morale issues and uncoordinated efforts at the workplace. Negative expectations and stereotypes have an unconstructive effect on performance levels (Bridges, 2008). For instance, if a stereotype advocates African Americans as less intelligent and with poor work ethic, then some Black employees who are naturally intelligent may fail to realize their work potential and become less productive. In addition, an organization may fail to employ African Americans in managerial or senior positions

The Advantages And Disadvantages Of A Monopoly Economics Essay

The Advantages And Disadvantages Of A Monopoly Economics Essay Markets are the heart and soul of a capitalist or free market economy which is based on the notion of competition. Varying degrees of competition ultimately lead to different market structures with different outcomes to the market. The main market structures are perfect competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly and monopoly, each with a different outcome to the market which leads economists to consider some market structures to be more desirable for the society such as perfect competition while others are less desirable such as Monopoly. It is often argued that monopoly restricts competition through entry barriers and therefore should be forbidden. This is supported by a strong case against monopoly as it restricts consumer choice and prevents small innovative businesses from being established. In addition, a monopoly will produce at a lower output and charge higher prices than a competitive market, with the same cost structure. This leads to a loss of economic welfare and efficiency. However, if monopolies are always assumed bad then questions of why firms seek to be monopolies and why governments accept or tolerate monopolistic firms will rise. In theory monopoly is a market with only one seller that dominates and sets price and quantity of the good. The markets demand curve is the firms demand curve and it is assumed that there are no substitutes and thus a firm is a price-maker that is motivated by profit maximisation and is supported by restrictive barriers to entry of the market that subsequently prevents competition. In reality it is hard to find a market in which some form of substitute firm or product does not exist. Therefore, the Competition Commission in the UK defines a market as a monopoly if there is a firm possessing over a 25% market share and facing no significant competition. In order to evaluate monopoly and to determine whether it should be allowed or not, it is vital to understand the characteristics of monopoly and to apply various efficiency concepts such as productive efficiency, allocative efficiency and X-efficiency to both extremes of the market structure, perfect competition and monopoly, to understand their effect on both consumer and producer surplus in the form of households and firms which consequently affect the general economic welfare. 2.0 Characteristics of Monopoly There are various characteristics of monopoly but it is mainly distinguished from other market structures by its barriers to entry. These barriers are a variety of obstacles or boundaries that prevent other firms from breaking into the monopolistic firms market, thus allowing the monopolistic firm to maintain its monopoly and therefore continue to earn supernormal profits. Sloman (2010) suggests that barriers to the entry of new firms are a must for an existing firm to maintain its monopoly position. There are a number of entry barriers that would exist in a market in different forms such as economies of scale, economies of scope, legal patents, licences, product differentiation and high start-up costs. Economies of scale are considered as one major barrier, this occurs when a reduction in unit costs depends on the output size. In such case, a large firm is most efficient and new firms cannot afford to enter the market and gain market shares. The industry may not be able to accommodate more than one producer which is known as natural monopoly. This is the case with public utilities such as water, gas, electricity where these firms have economies of scale to prevent new firms from entering the market. Economies of scope is another barrier as firms who produce a range of products are likely to achieve lower average costs of production and undercut prices to drive new firms out of the market. Proctor Gamble enjoys economies of scope as it produces hundreds of products but could afford to hire expensive skilled workers and experts who can use their skills across the product line and therefore spread the costs and lower the average total cost for each product. (Alesina and Spolaore, 2005) Patents and licences are also considered main entry barriers. The US Patent and Trademark office issues patents for 20 years period, in accordance with the 1995 GATT agreement. (USPTO, 1995) These patents give an inventor the exclusive right to produce a product for a 20 years period such as the case of the pharmaceutical giant, Pfizer, which has a patent on Viagra until 2014. (Stevens, 2007) Likewise, licences are granted by governments which allow one or a few firms to operate in a specific market under government regulations and control. Product differentiation and brand loyalty where a firm produces a differentiated product and the consumer associates that product with the brand. An example of product differentiation would be the car industry, where different firms would produce substitutes but they are not considered as perfect substitutes as required in perfect competition, so each firm would have some form of monopoly power in its product category. This is clearly evident in the luxury sport cars market such as Ferrari, Porsche and Lotus. Other forms of entry barriers may include high start-up costs for new firms in comparison with an established monopoly firm which is likely to have gained enough experience and efficiency techniques to be able to reduce costs and hence prices for any potential new firms to be able to compete. Based on the characteristics of monopoly, it is important to evaluate its economic efficiency and therefore its effect on consumer surplus and social welfare in general. In the next section, we compare the economic efficiency of both extremes of the market structure. 3.0 Economic efficiency In economic terms, monopoly and perfect competition should be judged on the extent to which they contribute to improving the human wellbeing and social welfare, therefore, it is important to assess whether the market structure is efficient or inefficient. Nellis and Parker (2006) point out that the success or failure of firms is directly affected by the extent to which they are managed efficiently. The lower the cost per unit of output, without reducing the quality of the product, the higher the economic efficiency of a firm. This is evident in a competitive market where firms strive to be economically efficient in order to survive. However, this is not the case in a monopoly which is generally considered as an inefficient market structure. This can be clarified by the following analysis of various economic terms of efficiency. 3.1 Allocative efficiency Assuming an initial distribution of income and wealth, allocative efficiency occurs at the point when it is impossible to improve overall economic welfare by reallocating resources between markets. For the whole economy to be allocatively efficient, price must equal marginal cost in every market. However, it is unlikely that a monopoly seeking profit maximisation would be allocatively efficient. A monopoly tends to restrict output below the market equilibrium to force up the prices. PRC MC AC Welfare loss MR AR=Industry demand=MU Q2 Q1 Output Figure 1 Allocative inefficiency and welfare loss Figure 1 demonstrates how a monopoly is allocatively inefficient. While a perfectly competitive market would have an output Q1 where the price P is equal to both MC and MU based on demand curve so all units produced add more to welfare (MU) than the resources they cost to make (MC). A monopolist is in equilibrium with an output Q2 where MC=MR, which means some units that would have been benefited society are no longer produced and thus an overall welfare loss. 3.2 Productive efficiency This can only be achieved if a firm uses the available techniques and factors of production at the lowest possible cost per unit of output. Lipsey (1992) states that in the context of an industry, the interpretation of productive efficiency is that firms are operating so that costs are minimized. In monopoly, in contrast to perfect competition, there are no competitive forces that would make a firm hold costs down to a minimum. PRC MC AC C2 C1 MR AR Q2 Q1 Output Figure 2 Productive efficiency Figure 2 illustrates the productively efficient output Q1 which is the minimum point of the AC curve where unit cost is C1, where the least amount of scarce resources possible are being used per unit of output. However, a monopolist will produce the profit maximising output Q2 with higher costs C2 per unit which can be passed to the consumer, hence demonstrating productive inefficiency. X-efficiency The concept of x-efficiency requires that the lowest possible prices are paid for inputs or factors of production. However, there is less incentive for a monopoly to make full use of the available technology, mainly due to lack of competition. Monopolies are more likely to be technically and productively inefficient, incurring unnecessary production costs and wasted resources. A firm could be employing too many workers or investing in machines that are never used, deeming it technically inefficient. It could be paying its workers unnecessary high wages or buying capital or raw material at unnecessary high prices. This means that the monopolists LRAC is above that which would be technically possible, therefore resources are wasted. Costs LRAC monopoly LRAC possible = X-inefficiency Output Figure 3 X-efficiency gap The x-inefficiency gap, as shown in figure 3, is considered as unnecessary production costs that a firm can reduce. In a perfectly competitive market, a firm must eliminate any form of x-inefficiency in order to survive and make normal profits. However, this is not the case with monopoly, which are able to survive while incurring unnecessary production costs and making satisfactory rather than maximum profits. The evaluation of economic efficiency of a monopoly compared to perfect competition has highlighted a number of disadvantages to support economists case against monopolistic firms. 4.0 Disadvantages of Monopoly In general, a monopolistic market structure would produce less output and charge higher prices which leads to a decline in consumer surplus and a deadweight welfare loss. The higher prices would lead to allocative inefficiency and supernormal profits, leading to reduced benefits to consumers and unequal distribution of income. This also raises a question about equity. The higher prices would exploit low income consumers and their purchasing power might be transferred to shareholders in the form of dividends leading again to unequal distribution of income. A monopoly tends to be less motivated towards economic efficiency such as cutting costs or increasing productivity. There is also a possibility that a monopoly would experience diseconomies of scale as the higher it gets bigger, their average costs increase. Further more, the lack of competition could discourage a monopoly from investing in research and development, leading to lack of innovation and worse products. However, with all the evidence against monopoly, there are still the questions of why do monopolies still exist, why firms seek to be monopolies and why do governments seem to tolerate them? 5.0 Advantages of monopoly On economic terms, perfect competition is generally regarded as more desirable than monopoly. However, monopolies are not necessarily bad, considering they are as highly motivated and public-spirited as competitive industries. Economic theory assumes that everyone is motivated by self-interest; this applies to competitive markets as well as to monopolies. Firms in competitive markets would aspire to be a monopoly by eliminating competition but this is unlikely achieved due to market forces and the absence of barriers to entry and exit. The fact that monopolies make supernormal profits allows them to invest in research and development and allows them to fund high cost investment spending into new technology. This is likely to result, if successful, in improved products and lower costs on the long run. An innovative monopoly could therefore be considered dynamically efficient over a long term as it reaps the reward of investment in research and development. Microsoft did not start as a monopoly but the introduction of Windows version 3.0 in 1990 followed by various Microsoft Office applications provided the market power to become a monopoly. Its position as a monopoly was further cemented by the continuous investment in research and development. It is generally argued that monopoly in high technology sectors is good as it provides firms with a greater incentive to invest in research and development. Patents for new ideas are normally acceptable as it encourages firms to fund the initial research and development and it allows these firms to recoup their investment. Another advantage of monopoly is economies of scale. An increased output would lead to a decrease in average costs of production, which can be passed to consumers in the form of lower prices. Likewise, cutting prices would be an advantage for a monopoly as it would increase sales and maximise economies of scale. PRC S (Perf comp) =â‚ ¬Ã‚  Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬Å" Ã‚ C Ppc Pm LRMC (monopoly) D industry Qpc Qm MR (monopoly) Figure 4 Market equilibrium under monopoly Figure 4 shows the market equilibrium in perfect competition at output Qpc and supply = demand. A monopoly would generate economies of scale on the long run and drive down marginal costs to LRMC. A monopoly would therefore be able produce a profit maximising output Qm at a price Pm which is lower than perfect competition. Profits and consumer surplus are higher under monopoly and both consumer and producer would benefit. Kerr and Gaisford (2008) highlight the impact of international trade on domestic trade and the need for a domestic monopoly capable of generating the economies of scale required to compete in the international market. BT is a good example of domestic monopoly in the 1980s that had to invest in systems and technology to be able to compete in the international market. Also, the threat of international imports would force a domestic monopoly to set marginal revenue equal to marginal cost and reducing its prices, which is a boost to consumer surplus and social welfare. 6. 0 Conclusion Despite the fact that monopoly produces less output at higher prices and the negative implications on consumer surplus and social welfare, nevertheless, the existence of monopolies are inevitable as long as firms seek profit maximisation as well as increased market share and ultimately market dominance. In a free market economy, the chances of supernormal profits will eventually encourage other firms to attempt to break into a monopolistic market. The threat of competition or even a financial threat of a takeover will force a monopoly to become highly economic efficient. The American economist William Baumol argues in his theory of contestable markets that a monopoly may be forced over time to make the same production and pricing decisions as a competitive market would, merely due to the possibility of future competition. (Griffiths and Ison, 2001) From the above analysis, it is easy to conclude that perfect competition is productively more efficient than monopoly. However, if we take into account the substantial economies of scale that a monopoly would have, then it is more likely that a monopoly is more productively efficient than competition. In some cases, such as a natural monopoly, it is more acceptable to have just one firm as a monopoly provided that its price and productivity are regulated. Von Mises (1966) concludes that the mere existence of monopoly does not mean anything. The publisher of a copyright book is a monopolist, but he may not be able to sell a single copy, no matter how low the price he asks. Not every price at which a monopolist sells a monopolized commodity is a monop ­oly price. Monopoly prices are only prices at which it is more advantageous for the monopolist to restrict the total amount to be sold than to expand sales to the limit which a competitive market would allow. Although monopoly is not desirable as it restricts competition and causes a reduction in consumer surplus and social welfare, it is however inevitable in a real business market that a firm would often take advantage of its strong market position to control the supply of goods or services. Monopolies are not illegal but their abuse of market power to limit competition is illegal and therefore actions by governments to regulate the market would be required. Finally, all firms are concerned with determining the price level that would give them sufficient profit while maintaining the consumers attraction and demand. This should work in the benefit of consumers and the society if regulations are in place for governments to intervene when a firm abuses its monopoly power to the detriment of consumers.

The possible link between culture, material conditions, and war Essay

The possible link between culture, material conditions, and war After the Second World War and finally after the Cold War and the Gulf War, many peo-ple agreed that there is no need for war anymore. Allies were conducted to maintain peace. But this belief was destroyed. Nowadays, we have to fear a war with Iraq. The question which rises is, if there is a possible link between culture, material conditions, and war? In my paper I will mention the anthropology of war and gender roles. Furthermore, I will discuss the interrelations between culture and war, and finally the interrelations between religion and war. The first question is, if there was war from the beginning of human kind on, or if war just was developed over time? This is a hard question, which nobody can explain exactly. The movie â€Å"The Gods must be crazy† (1984) could be one example that in an uncivilized, isolated society people cannot have war, because they do not have reasons to fight about. They have everything they need various times. That means, they do not have to share things and in conclusion, do not have to fight about things. In the Kalahari Desert a family of African Bushmen had a life in an ideal fashion in harmony and peace. One day somebody dropped a coke bottle out of an airplane down to the Kalahari Desert. This bottle leads to disharmony and violence among the family. All of a sudden they have to share this tool which â€Å"God sent them†. Nobody can work without this tool anymore. That is the reason why they start fighting. But why can people not share, or need to have what they want at onc e without the patience to wait? That’s the problem of human kind in a civilized world. Civilized people change the environment to suit them. The Kalahari Desert cou... ...volution, Males, and violence. The Chronicle of Higher Education 2002. Trexler. Backgrounds (Selections). John, Keegan. The Fact of Battle (Selections). Victor, Davis Hanson. Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the rise of Western Power. An-chor Books 2001. Rodney, Stark. One True God: Historical Consequences of Monotheism (Selection). Princeton University Press. Barrington, Moore, Jr. Moral Purity and Persecution in History (Selection). Princeton University Press Lawrence H., Keeley. War before Civilization. Oxford University Press 1996. Robert L., O’Connell. Ride of the Second Horseman. Oxford University Press 1995. Andrew, Sullivan. This is a religious war. New York Times 2001. Michael, Adams. Peter Pan’s great Adventure. Adams. Male Sacrifice and W.W.I.- to be a man. Jared, Diamond. Guns, Germs, and Steel. W.W. Norton & Company. The possible link between culture, material conditions, and war Essay The possible link between culture, material conditions, and war After the Second World War and finally after the Cold War and the Gulf War, many peo-ple agreed that there is no need for war anymore. Allies were conducted to maintain peace. But this belief was destroyed. Nowadays, we have to fear a war with Iraq. The question which rises is, if there is a possible link between culture, material conditions, and war? In my paper I will mention the anthropology of war and gender roles. Furthermore, I will discuss the interrelations between culture and war, and finally the interrelations between religion and war. The first question is, if there was war from the beginning of human kind on, or if war just was developed over time? This is a hard question, which nobody can explain exactly. The movie â€Å"The Gods must be crazy† (1984) could be one example that in an uncivilized, isolated society people cannot have war, because they do not have reasons to fight about. They have everything they need various times. That means, they do not have to share things and in conclusion, do not have to fight about things. In the Kalahari Desert a family of African Bushmen had a life in an ideal fashion in harmony and peace. One day somebody dropped a coke bottle out of an airplane down to the Kalahari Desert. This bottle leads to disharmony and violence among the family. All of a sudden they have to share this tool which â€Å"God sent them†. Nobody can work without this tool anymore. That is the reason why they start fighting. But why can people not share, or need to have what they want at onc e without the patience to wait? That’s the problem of human kind in a civilized world. Civilized people change the environment to suit them. The Kalahari Desert cou... ...volution, Males, and violence. The Chronicle of Higher Education 2002. Trexler. Backgrounds (Selections). John, Keegan. The Fact of Battle (Selections). Victor, Davis Hanson. Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the rise of Western Power. An-chor Books 2001. Rodney, Stark. One True God: Historical Consequences of Monotheism (Selection). Princeton University Press. Barrington, Moore, Jr. Moral Purity and Persecution in History (Selection). Princeton University Press Lawrence H., Keeley. War before Civilization. Oxford University Press 1996. Robert L., O’Connell. Ride of the Second Horseman. Oxford University Press 1995. Andrew, Sullivan. This is a religious war. New York Times 2001. Michael, Adams. Peter Pan’s great Adventure. Adams. Male Sacrifice and W.W.I.- to be a man. Jared, Diamond. Guns, Germs, and Steel. W.W. Norton & Company.

Five Women Who Changed History English Literature Essay

Five adult females in history have influenced the manner adult females are seen in our society today. They are Sacagawea, Julia Boggs Dent Grant, Anne Hutchinson, Abigail Adams, and Harriet Beecher Stowe. Julia Boggs Dent Grant pushed her hubby, Ulysses Grant, to go president and so became an of import advisor to him. Anne Hutchinson lived in the colonial times of America ‘s history. One of the first New England colonists to oppugn the authorization of the Puritan leaders in spiritual affairs, Anne Hutchinson prefers to follow her scruples to blind obeisance. She helped develop the construct of spiritual freedom. Abigail Adams, the married woman of John Adams, was an advocator of adult females ‘s rights and in a missive, to her hubby, wrote, â€Å" Remember the ladies. † Harriet Beecher Stowe is an writer and an emancipationist. When Lewis and Clark asked Sacagawea ‘s hubby to their translator on their journey, he agreed merely if Sacagawea was allowed to com e along. Lewis and Clark agreed because they thought her presence would talk good to the Indians they would meet during their escapade through the Wild West. Womans have existed alongside work forces for around 10,000 old ages, but work forces, in history books, have ever had the limelight on their workss, their journeys, and their lives, but adult females are the anchor of our society, now and so. Much of Sacagawea ‘s life is a enigma and is full of guess. She was born around 1788. She is the girl of a Shoshone head and is born in Lemhi County, Idaho. Around the age of 10, Hidatsa Indians, an enemy of the Shoshones, captured Sacagawea. They brought her back to their small town in upper Missouri. A Gallic Canadian trapper, named Toussaint Charbonneau, came along, purchased Sacagawea and another confined miss to be his married womans. Lewis and Clark really asked Toussaint to be their translator for their journey, but for him to travel Sacagawea would hold to come along every bit good. They agreed to that trade. Lewis and Clark hoped that Sacagawea ‘s mere presence would assist the Indians be friendlier to them. Sacagawea gave birth to her first boy on the route with her hubby, Lewis and Clark. She named him Jean Baptiste Charbonneau and Clark gave him the moniker Pomp. ( PBS ) When the group found themselves every bit far as they could travel on pes, Lewis left to h appen a Shoshone set, which he hoped to derive Equus caballuss from them. This is what Lewis wrote about the twenty-four hours they went to acquire Equus caballuss from the Shoshone set, â€Å" aˆÂ ¦We shortly drew near to the cantonment, and merely as we approached it a adult female made her manner through the crowd towards Sacajawea, and acknowledging each other, they embraced with the most tender fondness. The meeting of these two immature adult females had in it something particularly touching, non merely in the fervent mode in which their feelings were expressed, but from the existent involvement of their state of affairs. . . Clark and Lewis shortly after met with the head. . . After this the conference was to be opened, and sword lily of an chance of being able to discourse more clearly, Sacajawea was sent for ; she came into the collapsible shelter, sat down, and was get downing to construe, when in the individual of Cameahwait she recognized her brother: She immediate ly jumped up, and ran and embraced him, throwing over him her cover and crying abundantly: The head was himself moved, though non in the same grade. After some conversation between them she resumed her place, and attempted to construe for us, but her new state of affairs seemed to overmaster her, and she was often interrupted by her cryings † ( Lewis, Meriwether ) . Sacagawea, in this transition, is evidently happy to see him, but alternatively of merely traveling back to her folk, she decides to go on her journey with them. After this, it is non precisely rather clear what happened to Sacagawea. Some say she died of â€Å" putrid febrility † tardily in 1812 with her hubby in St. Louis. Others suspect that she returned to her folk and died there sometime around 1884. The stoping of Sacagawea might non be clear, but her narrative of the Wild West and will ever be remembered for old ages to come. Julia Boggs Dent Grant was born on January 26, 1826 in St. Louis, Missouri to born to â€Å" Colonel † Frederick Dent. He was a successful plantation proprietor. The female parent of Julia was Ellen Bray Wrenshall Dent. She was a really educated adult female and made certain her kids were excessively. Therefore, Julia was sent to go to the local school that was run by John F. Long. Subsequently, to be enrolled in a boarding school called the Mauro Boarding School. She went to school at that place for seven old ages and being at that place, Julia grew fond of her literature classs. She read The Dashing Lieutenant and said that she was traveling to get married a solider one twenty-four hours. She returned place in 1844 and met Ulysses Grant for the first clip when he came to see his west point roomie and her older brother. Ulysses and Julia were mesmerized by each other. They had a batch in common. For illustration, they both loved novels and were raised as rigorous Methodist ch urchs. Ulysses admired Julia ‘s sprit, and they both shared a love of Equus caballuss. This may be a great lucifer for Julia, but her male parent did non O.K. . Just before Ulysses was ordered to Louisiana, he proposed to Julia, and she said yes, of class. Her male parent did non cognize of this at all. They were eventually married on August 22, 1848. Rumors went around that Ulysses was a rummy, but Julia defended him stating, â€Å" Sam merely drunk when he was lonely for his familyaˆÂ ¦ † ( Julia Grant ) The grant household had a difficult life together and moved from topographic point to topographic point. The household eventually found their forever place in galena, Illinois. The civil war came and went. That was a difficult clip for the household, but they pushed though. Ulysses became president on March 4, 1869. Julia loved and adored being the first lady, but when she found out one twenty-four hours that the white house ‘s staff was non leting inkiness s at a response, she was non really pleased. When Ulysses left office, they traveled around the universe, and Julia found joy one time once more. They returned place and Ulysses was diagnosed with malignant neoplastic disease. He died and Julia was so devastated that she could non convey herself to go to his funeral. Julia dies December 14, 1902, at the age 76. She is buried following to her hubby in the national memorial. Anne Hutchinson was a courageous adult female and was born July 20, 1595 in England. Her male parent, Reverend Francis Marbury, was a deacon at Christ church and was imprisoned for prophesying against the inutility of English curates. Anne was educated at place by reading many of her male parent ‘s divinity and faith books. Having grown up during the persecution of the Catholics and Separatists under Elizabeth and James I, Anne developed a sense of the thought of faith freedom and the thought of rights for all. 21 old ages of her life passed, and William Hutchinson oculus found Anne. Her courted her or flirted with her until they were married on August 9, 1612. She finally moved to Massachusetts Bay with her hubby and household. Anne started out, in her community at Massachusetts Bay, really liked because of her encephalon and contemplation, but shortly ran into jobs when she spoke of her spiritual positions and was seen as an vocal adult female. Interested in of import theolog ical issues, Anne begins to keep hebdomadal meetings in her place after Sunday services. The attending of these meetings grew readily and even had caught the oculus of some of the local taking citizens who started to go to every bit good. After holding established her function as the treatment leader, she revealed at the meeting her back uping position of the efficaciousness of religion entirely as the manner to redemption. Her position was contrasting to the position of the Puritans that the manner to redemption was good plants. She even told the meeting of her position that God showed himself to anyone without the demand of a clergy. A adult male named John Winthrop warned Anne about her spiritual positions. He said this to her â€Å" aˆÂ ¦women could make irreparable harm to their encephalons by chew overing deep theological mattersaˆÂ ¦ † ( John Winthrop ) This position of adult females was common in this twenty-four hours of age, but still Anne went on disregar ding John Winthrop ‘s warning. Because of Anne ‘s refusal to halt her ‘silly ‘ positions, Winthrop and John Cotton led an resistance of Anne Hutchison. Anne and her followings were charged of the antinomian unorthodoxy. Anne went before the general tribunal in 1637. The tribunal found her guilty and banished her organize the bay settlement. She moved to a settlement in Portsmouth, Rhode Island. Anne Hutchison is a really of import individual in American history because without her America would ne'er hold developed the construct of spiritual freedom in the Constitution ‘s measure of rights. Indians killed Anne Hutchison at East Chester, New York in 1643. This may be a tragic stoping to such an astonishing adult female, but she will ever be remembered for her positions on freedom of faith, freedom of idea, and freedom to idolize. Abigail Smith Adams was born November 11, 1744 in Weymouth, Massachusetts to Elizabeth Quincy Smith and Reverend William Smith. Like most of the misss back so, she did non hold a formal instruction, but took advantage of her male parent ‘s library and reading the Bible. Her male parent is the curate of the North Parish Congregational Church of Weymouth. Even though most of Abigail ‘s relations were merchandisers and ship captains, she was raised in a simple, rural environment. Her instruction was home edge, where she learned how to run up, and how to work with all right needlecraft, and cookery. She learned how to read and compose, every bit good. Her deficiency of a existent instruction became a womb-to-tomb sorrow for her. She met John Adams in 1759, and they are reacquainted two old ages subsequently. They are married on October 25, 1764. They had many values and positions in common. In the 10 old ages, they were married they had four kids. The radical war spilt them a part. While John went to war for his state, Abigail and her kids tended to their farm. During this clip, Abigail sent legion letters to her hubby, relations, and friends. These letters are all of import, but one missive of hers in peculiar changed the class of history forever. In this missive, she wrote, â€Å" I long to hear that you have declared an independence — and by the manner in the new Code of Laws which I suppose it will be necessary for you to do I desire you would retrieve the Ladies, and be more generous and favourable to them than your ascendants. Do non set such limitless power into the custodies of the Husbands. Remember all Men would be autocrats if they could. If peculiar attention and attending is non paid to the Ladies we are determined to agitate a Rebellion, and will non keep ourselves bound by any Laws in which we have no voice, or Representation † ( Adams, Abigail ) . This missive states that if work forces had all of the power, they would tyran ts etc. Abigail wrote down her ideas and advocated for adult females ‘s rights because she believe she could alter how work forces saw adult females. John went into office and Abigail became the first married woman to remain in the white house with her hubby. Many old ages passed and Abigail died of enteric fever febrility and surrounded by household members she died October 28, 1818. Abigail Adams was an astonishing adult female and she fought to pattern a place for adult females in political relations. If Abigail decided non to talk her head, adult females today would ne'er hold been able to hold a place in the authorities and in political relations. As the remainder of these adult females, she will ever be remembered for old ages to come. Harriet Beecher Stowe was born on June 14, 1811, in Litchfield, Connecticut. Her parents were Lyman Beecher and Roxanna Foote Beecher. Her female parent died when Harriet was merely a kid. Harriet was enrolled in school that followed the class of classical acquisition that was normally reserved for immature work forces. When she was 21, she moved to Cincinnati, Ohio. Her male parent took a strong emancipationist stance when he lived through the pro-slavery Cincinnati Riots of 1836. His position strengthened Harriet ‘s abolitionist belief and made her more strongly an emancipationist. She found like-minded friends in a local literary association called the Semi-Colon Club. One of them being a Calvin Ellis Stowe and they married on January 6, 1836. When Congress passed the Fugitive Slave Law, motivating hurt and hurt in emancipationist and free black communities of the North, Harriet Decided to revenge by composing a literary representation of bondage called Uncle Tom ‘s Ca bin. Her book went on to be a really celebrated book. She wrote many other books, every bit good. Afer many old ages of Writing, she dies on July 1, 1896 in Hartford, Connecticut. Womans are an of import add-on to society, now and so. They are and will ever be the anchor of our civilisation. While raising a kid, Sacagawea and her hubby helped, Lewis and Clark discover the West for the United States. She had the bravery to alternatively of returning to her folk, she wanted to go on on the journey though the Wild West with her hubby, her kid, Lewis and Clark. Julia Boggs Dent Grant pushed her hubby to go president and many adult females like to believe she is the existent ground why Ulysses Grant did what he did in his clip as president. Anne Hutchinson spoke her head and was punished for it, but she still went on and is the ground our state has freedom of faith in our Bill of Rights. Abigail Adams was a courageous adult female. She had the bravery to talk her head, as Anne Hutchison did in her clip, to recommend and pattern a function for adult females in public personal businesss. She even had the backbones plenty to direct letters to her hubby warning him wha t would go on if work forces got all the power in our state. Harriet Beecher Stowe may non hold truly advocated for adult females ‘s rights, but she was an emancipationist and a damn good one at that. These five adult females are merely some of the few adult females who did something they thought was and stuck with it. Womans like these are difficult to come of these yearss and adult females today who refuse to see their function as a soundless background will ever do history that is great plenty for the history books no affair what. All it toke from this five adult females was one belief or value they had to alter the universe how they thought it should be like. Womans have existed alongside work forces for around 10,000 old ages, but work forces, in history books, have ever had the limelight on their workss, their journeys, and their lives, but adult females are the anchor of our society, now and so.

Us History Chapter 4 Notes.

Chapter Four. African Slaves Build their Own Community in Coastal Georgia Slavery was originally prohibited in the original 1732 Georgia charter; the ban was lifted two decades later when Georgia became a Royal colony. By 1770, 15,000 slaves made up 80% of the population. Rice was one of the most valuable commodities of mainland North America, surpassed only by tobacco and wheat. The Atlantic slave trade grew to match rice production. Saltwater† slaves (slaves taken from Africa, rather than â€Å"country born†) were inspected and branded on coastal forts in Africa, shipped overseas (where many died), then sold and marched to plantations Mortality rates were high for slaves, especially infants. Overseers could legally punish slaves and even murder them. Many slaves run and some rebel. Most slaves remained enslaved, but built up families and communities, mixing African traditions with their new homeland. The Beginnings of African Slavery Slavery has long been a part of Mediterranean Europe; Venetian and Genoese traders sold captured Slavics (the word slave derives from them), Muslims, and Africans. Enslaving Christians, but not Africans or Muslims, disturbed many Europeans. Portuguese expansion in West Africa was motivated by access to gold, wrought iron, ivory, tortoiseshells, textiles, and slaves (previously dominated by the Moors, or Spanish Muslims). European slaves left the slave hunting to the African traders. Sugar and Slavery Slaves were imported to work sugar plantations in Hispaniola and Brazil, among other islands. The Dutch expanded the European sugar market, leading France and England to start island sugar colonies as well. West Africans Marriage kinship ties, practicing polygamy, characterized societies on the West African coast. Women enjoyed social and economic independence. Shifting cultivation, cultivating land for several years then moving on while the cleared land lay fallow, helped build up African communities and commerce, creating states and kingdoms. Kingdoms on the coast were the ones who first traded with the Portuguese. Slavery in African society was much freer; slaves were treated as family members rather than possessions, were allowed to marry, and had freeborn children. The African Slave Trade The Demography of the Slave Trade 10-12 million slaves were transported to the Americas during the slave trade. 76% of slaves arrived from 1701-1810, the peak years of the slave trade. Half went to Dutch, French, or British plantations in the Caribbean, a third to Portuguese Brazil, and a tenth to Spanish America. About 5% went to the North American British colonies. With the exception of the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763, a world war between the French and their allies versus the British and their allies), the slave trade continued to become more important to the colonies up to the Revolution. There were twice as many male African slaves as female; most slaves were young, between 15 and 30, and represented nearly every West African ethnic group. Slavers of All Nations All western European nations participated in the slave trade, shipping slaves from coastal outposts and, later, through independent American and European traders. The Shock of Enslavement Many slave traders lived permanently in coastal outposts and married local women, reinforcing commercial ties through family relations. Many slaves resented African involvement in the slave trade. Most Africans were enslaved through warfare. As the demand for slaves increased, slave raids pressed deeper into the continent. Captives would wait in dungeons or pens called â€Å"barracoons†, separated from family and people of the same ethnic group to discourage rebellion, before being branded with the mark of their buyer. The Middle Passage The â€Å"Middle Passage† referred to the middle part of the trade triangle from England to Africa to America back to England. Historians estimate that 1 in 6 slaves died from the unsanitary conditions, extreme crowding, and diseases. Many committed suicide as an act of rebellion on the slave ships. Captains resorted to putting netting over the side of their ships. Arrival in the New World When the slaves arrived, their captors would parade them around to impress buyers. Slaves would be sold at auctions or during a â€Å"scramble†, where prices were pre-set and the buyers would rush the slaves in a corral and take their pick. Political and Economic Effects on Africa The African slave trade eventually weakened Africa as a whole. The slave raiding was depopulating Africa as many died during the raids and the rest were sent off to be sold. The arrival of European goods stifled local manufacturing while agriculture lost labor. The slave trade allowed for the political, economic, and military conquest of Africa. The Development of North American Slave Societies Slavery comes to North America The first slaves arrived in Virginia in 1619. Slaves cost twice as much as indentured servants, but had about the same life span in the disease-ridden Chesapeake. Consequently, most planters employed more indentured servants than slaves. This was termed society with slaves, where slavery was just one form of labor. In this type of society, the status of black Virginians was ambiguous; many owned slaves and land themselves, even with the lack of religious distinction among them. In slave society, slavery is the dominant form of labor. As indentured servants became scarce as less English immigrated, their labor was replaced with slavery. Slavery was strengthened by making slave-status inheritable through their mother’s status (letting white male owners take slave mistresses), ending Christian baptism from changing conditions of servitude, and by making the killing of a slave a non-felony. The Tobacco Colonies The growth of tobacco required the growth of the slave trade. The natural growth of the slaver population served to increase the profits of their owners, and so was encouraged. The Lower South Settlement in the south was a slave society from the outset, using native slaves. However, this soon shifted to African slaves as the South began producing more rice. Slavery in the Spanish Colonies Spanish settlements employed slaves, the most benign form being the kind in Florida, which resembled the system in use in Mediterranean and African society. Spain declared Florida a haven for fugitives to weaken southern English colonies. In New Mexico, however, Spain used native slaves, though in a more restrained way to prevent another Pueblo Uprising. Spain captured â€Å"infidel Indians† such as the Apaches or nomads from the Great Plains and enslaved them, using them as house servants or fieldworkers. French Louisiana Slaves were heavily used in Louisiana agriculture until the Natchez Rebellion, with slaves making up no more than a third of the population. Only when the 18th century ended did slavery make a return, in force. Slavery in the North Slavery was universally accepted in the colonies. Among the rich, ownership of slaves was almost universal as well. The Quakers were the first to oppose slavery, but they would not gain traction until the Revolution. African to African American The Daily Life of Slaves Slaves were provided with scant clothing. In the South, where large numbers of slaves were needed, the concentration of slaves allowed for the emergence of communities, despite the harsh working conditions imposed on them on the large plantations. Families and Communities Families were the most important unit in African American culture, but the slave codes did not allow for legal slave marriage. Families were often broken up by sale. Naming practices reinforced family ties to overcome forced separations. Emotional, and especially kinship ties, formed the basis of African American society. African American Culture Most slaves were not Christian until the Great Awakening, due to the reluctance of their masters. One significant practice occurred in their burial rituals. African Americans created dialects by mixing English with native African languases. The Africanization of the South Southerners were influenced by African American culture, changing their diet, their art, language, music, and dance. Violence and Resistance Slavery rested on the threat of violence, even among â€Å"humane† slave owners like George Washington. Many slaves resisted through refusing to cooperate, destroying property, and by running away. Runaways would create communities called â€Å"maroons†, from the Spanish â€Å"cimmaron† (wild, untamed). They would intermingle with the Florida Creeks, creating the Seminole tribe, derived from the corruption of cimmaron. Revolts occurred in the colonies, but not on the scale of Jamaica, Guiana, or Brazil; the family and community ties slaves established made them less likely to revolt. Slavery and Empire Slavery the Mainspring The slave colonies accounted for 95% of all American exports to Great Britain from 1714-1773. Slavery helped the British economy in three ways. Slavery created capital, which funded economic expansion. Second, it created the raw materials necessary for the Industrial Revolution. Third, it created large colonial markets for British-made goods. The Politics of Mainspring Mercantilism, an economic system where the government intervenes to increase the national wealth, was the dominant economic theory in Europe. Mercantilists viewed commerce as a zero-sum game with clear winners and losers vying for a fixed amount of trade and wealth. Wars for Empire European wars spilled over into conflicts for colonial supremacy. In Queen Anne’s War, Great Britain won the war against France and Spain, gaining exclusive rights to supply slaves to its American colonies. British Colonial Regulation Mercantilists used state-run monopolies to manage commerce. The British used colonial regulations to make their American colonies markets for British manufacturing goods and exporters of commodities that the British would resell at profit. Most did not complain about the British economic policies until the 1760s. The Colonial Economy Mercantilism served to enrich the white colonists by giving them a protected market to sell and market their goods (sometimes by violating their own regulations). Slavery provided the capital to expand Northern port cities. Slavery and Freedom The Social Structure of the Slave Colonies Slavery provided the conditions necessary t o improve the life of the white settlers. Colonies were ruled by the self-perpetuating planter elite, which owned 60% of the wealth and half the land. The Southern landowners supported them. Under them were the landless colonists. White Skin Privilege White colonists gained a special status through the exploitation of race. Blacks were subject to a number of harsh penalties that did not apply to whites, including a ban on interracial marriage and sexual relations (refer to Thomas Jefferson). Even freedmen did not share equal rights. This set up barriers among the working class, including slaves and the landless colonists, who otherwise may have united against the moneyed classes if not for racial prejudice.